Chronology of Arakan
A timeline of key historical dates and a few highlighted documents related to the land where Rohingya lived for centuries and had developed their cultural identity.
Arakan, the land the Rohingya call home, is a land with a long history. A history which the Arakanese Chronicles tell us dates back to as early as 3000 BCE and the founding of Dhanyawadi, Kingdom of Arakan.
Situated in a prime location on the Bay of Bengal, Arakan has seen the rise, fall, and occupation of many kingdoms and empires. Since as long as the Silk Road routes which pass through this region have been travelled, Arakan has been a place of trade, culture, and religious exchange. Indian, Asian, Muslim, and European influences have all played a role in the history of Arakan.
The Rohingya and their cultural identity are bound to the history of Arakan. Their ancestors brought Islam to its shores as early as the 4th century CE and certainly by the 15th century CE which saw the rise of the great Arakanese Kingdom of Mrauk-U.
Interests in Arakan have led to a tumultuous chronology of events in the region, all of which contribute to the Rohingya’s story today.
CULTURE
The historical events which led to cultural exchange or influence between peoples of different religions, regions, or empires.
3000 BCE
The Origins of the Arakanese
200 BCE - 1500 CE
The Silk Roads
The Southwestern and Maritime Silk Roads are routes known to have passed through India and Burma and which brought great commerce and cultural exchange to the areas connected to these Silk Roads. They are said to have brought Islamic and other cultural influences to Arakan very early in history, possibly as early as the 2nd century BCE and lasting until as late as the 15th century CE.
146 - 788
Arakanese Kingdom of Dhanyawadi
The exact dates and period of the Dhanyawadi kingdom vary (2666 - 825 BCE; 825 BCE - 146 CE; 146 - 788 CE). The city of Dhanyawadi was the capital of the first Arakanese kingdom and is said to have been the centre of a "vast trade network that extended between China in the East and Persia and India in the west." (Topich & Leitich, 2013) Dhanyawaddi is, as yet, the oldest site discovered in Arakan, dating from around the 4th century. The only remaining art of Dhanyawaddi are the surviving sculptures surrounding the Mahamuni shrine. (Gutman, 2001)
680
Early Muslim Settlement
Sayed Mohammed Hanifa arrives on the coast of Arakan. "Shah Barid Khan, a courtier and a court poet in his book, "Mohammad Hanifa O Khaira Pan" written between 1517 and 1550 narrated that: "Sayed Mohammad Hanifa, one of the sons of Hazarat Ali (a.s.), the 4th Caliph of Islam reached the coast of Arakan enroute to China after losing a battle at Karballah (Kufa) in 680 C.E. When the first reached Arabsha Para, a place north of present Maungdaw town in north Arakan, with his followers by a fleet of junks - sailing ships then used by Arabs - they were confronted with the cannibal queen named Khaira Pari or Kayapuri who was then ruling the region. A bloody battle was broken out between them and it was won by Mohammad Hanifa. Mohammad Hanifa subjected the queen who along with her followers embraced Islam. He then married her and passed the rest of their life in great devotion to Allah. They became famous as saints. After Kayapuri's death she was buried on one of the p[...]
720 - 729
Anandachandra
Anandachandra, ruler of the Chandra Dynasty from 720 - 729 CE.
729
The Anandacandra Inscription
The historical record of Arakan begins with the Anandacandra inscription discovered in the city of Dhanyawadi which dates to 729 CE. The inscription is in Sanskrit which suggests the founders of this Arakanese kingdom were Indian. The inscription describes the beginning of the Candra Dynasty with King Dvancandra (370 - 425 CE).
788 - 1018
Arakanese Kingdom of Wethali (Wesali or Vesali)
Power shifted from Dhanyawadi to the city of Vesali which was founded in 788 CE by Maha Taing Candra. The city became an important trading port. According to the Anandacandra pillar inscription, the Vesali dynasty was characterised by peace and prosperity.
788 - 810
Muslim Traders Shipwrecked in Arakan
During the reign of Maha Taing Sanda (or Ma-ha-toing Tsan-da-ya), Muslim traders come to Wesali, Arakan. Phayre (1844) writes, 'In his time it is stated that several Ku-la, or foreign ships, were wrecked upon the Island of Ranbyi, and the people in them, said to be Musulmans, were sent to Arakan proper, where they were settled in villages.'
849 - 1287
The Pagan (Bagan) Kingdom
In 849 CE, the Burmans of the Pagan Kingdom establish the city of Pagan (Bagan) as their capital.
January 1, 950
Decline of Vesali
By late 10th century, the Pyu had invaded Vesali.
957
Mongolian Invasion of Vesali
'The True Chronicle records that in the year 957 CE a Mongolian invasion swept over Vesali, destroyed the Chandras, and placed on their throne Mongolian kings.' (Ullah, 2019). In Topich & Leitich (2013), the end of the Candra Dynasty is dated 957 CE when the Mongols killed Sula Taing Candra as told in the Arakanese chronicles.
1018 - 1430
Arakanese Kingdom of Lemro (Le-Mro)
According to Gutman (2001), over the five centuries of the Lemro period, "the capital changed at least five times". They were: Sambawak/Pyinsa, Parein, Hkrit, Launggret, and Toungoo Neyinzara.
1044
Pagan prince, Anawrahta (1044-77) comes to power
Also known as the father of the Burmese nation, he is credited with unifying the regions which constitute modern-day Burma (Myamnar) and establishing the First Burmese Empire. Historically verifiable Burmese history begins with his accession. He is known for spreading Theravada Buddhism throughout his territory. He conquered the north of Arakan but it was not incorporated into the Pagan kingdom, instead it remained a semi-independent state under the rule of its hereditary kings.
1057
First Burmese Empire
First unified Burmese (Myanmar) state established at Pagan (Bagan) as a result of the capture of the Mon capital Thaton and the defeat of the Mon kingdom.
1287
The Reassertion of the Arakanese Kingdom
With the decline of the Pagan kingdom, Arakan asserted its independence under Minhti (Mun Htee) (1279-1374) of Launggyet Dynasty, Arakanese Kingdom of Le-Mro.
1404
Decline of the Lemro Kingdom
The Arakanese chronicles state that '60 kings from the four cities of the Lemro River valley ruled Arakan until 1404 CE'. (Topich & Leitich, 2013)
Min Saw Mon
In 1404, Min Saw Mon ascended the Arakanese throne. He was the last king of the Launggyet Dynasty and the founder of Mrauk-U Dynasty of Arakan.
1406
Burmese Occupation of Lemro
End of Lemro period as the Burmese, under Min Khaung Yaza, occupy the Lemro city of Launggret and depose Min Saw Mon who fled to Gaur, the capital of the Bengal sultanate.
1406 - 1430
Min Saw Mon Exile
Min Saw Mon (as Suleiman Shah) spends 24 years exiled in the court of Gaisuddin Azam Shah, in Gaur.
1429 / 1430
Reconquest of Arakan
Min Saw Mon (1430 - 1433) reclaimed the Arakanese throne with the help of the Sultan Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, and ruled the kingdom, which was still restricted to northern Arakan, as a vassal of Bengal.
1430 - 1785
The Rise of the Arakanese Kingdom of Mrauk-U
The independent Arakanese Kingdom of Mrauk-U (or Mrohaung) spanned a period of 350 years. Dates before the Mrauk-U period are unattested.
16 November 1430
Mrauk-U City and Muslim Settlers
Min Saw Mon (also known as Suleiman Shah) founded the city of Mrauk-U. The Buddhist ruler encouraged the settlement of his Bengali followers in the area of Mrauk-U, thus becoming the earliest Muslim settlers in Arakan. According to Gutman (2001), these followers would build the 'Santikan mosque southeast of the city walls'.Topich & Leitich (2013) state, 'Muslim rule and influence in Arakan lasted for more than 350 years' which is the full span of the Mrauk-U period.
1437
United Arakan Coastline
Mrauk-U conquers Thandwe which resulted in the unification of the entire Arakan coast for the first time.
1455
The Rakhine Minthami Eigyin
The earliest surviving example of Arakanese literature, the Rakhine Minthami Eigyin (Lullaby for a Princess of Arakan), was written in 1455.
1459
Mrauk-U Conquers Chittagong
Mrauk-U conquers Chittagong with the defeat of Sultan Barbak Shaw of Bengal.
1531
Min Bin Zabuk Shah
Following a long period of territory loss and power struggles, Min Bin Zabuk Shah (1531 - 1553) ascends the Arakanese throne. (Topich & Leitich, 2013)
1535
Connections with Portuguese Mercenaries
'According to Arakanese chronicles, a small but well-armed army of Portuguese mercenaries' attacked Mrauk-U. They were eventually driven back out to sea by the Arakanese forces, but the event led to Min Bin resolving the threat they posed by hiring Portuguese mercenaries thereafter. (Wikipedia, Min Bin; 2020)
1546 - 1547
Burmese Invasion Repelled
Min Bin, aided by 'Portuguese mercenaries and Mon levies' defeat the Burmese invasion under king Tabinshweti. (Topich & Leitich, 2013)
1547 - 1553
Arakan Expansion of Power
Following the Mughals' invasion of the Gaur sultanate, Min Bin took this opportunity to expand Arakan's control by creating a naval fleet which 'dominated the Bay of Bengal and the Gulf of Martaban' which allowed the Mrauk-U dynasty to control a 1000 mile stretch of coastline. At the time, ports on this coastline 'received Arab, Danish, Dutch, and Portuguese traders'. (Topich & Leitich, 2013)
1629
Portuguese Friar Sebastian Manrique arrives in Mrauk-U
Manrique is said to have stayed in Arakan from 1629 - 1637, during which time he wrote extensively about the court, the capital, religious beliefs and practices in his book, Itinerario de las Missiones Orientales del P. Manrique.
1660
Wouter Schoutens in Arakan
Dutch traveller, Wouter Schoutens, visited Arakan. He wrote about his travels to Arakan and included an engraving of a View of Mrauk-U in the 17th century in his 1676 book, Oost-Indische Voyagie.
1784
Burmese Occupation of Mrauk-U
The Mrauk-U Kingdom was conquered by the Burmese Konbaung Dynasty, under King Bodawpaya. The Burmese occupation lasted from 1784 - 1826.
1798
Captain Hiram Cox and Early Arakanese Refugees
In 1798, Captain Hiram Cox was sent to Chittagong to set up living conditions for the Arakanese refugees who had fled Burmese occupied Mrauk-U, Arakan. The preface to his journals states, ?The tyranny of the Burmhan Government in the province of Arracan, drove a very considerable body of its unfortunate inhabitants to the dire resolution of abandoning their homes and native country, to seek a precarious existence in the woods and forests, which form the boundary of our territories on the Chittagong frontier. To give immediate assistance to these unfortunate beings, [...] Captain Cox was commissioned to proceed to Chittagong, for the purpose of arranging the most effectual means of relieving their necessities, by giving them a permanent settlement on the waste lands of that extensive district.? (Cox, 1821; pp. vi-vii)
POLITICS
The political events which impacted Arakan and its inhabitants, including changes in leadership, political expansion, policy, invasions, battles, and wars.
DEMOGRAPHY
The census events throughout history which contributed to political policy and legislation and impacted identity.
ROHINGYA
The historical events of specific importance to Rohingya identity, culture, and experience.